Animals & Shapeshifters in Latin American Literature | Crash Course

Nahualism represents a sophisticated indigenous spiritual tradition that survived colonial suppression. The Spanish called specialists 'hechiceros' (witches), failing to comprehend their sophisticated categorization of 40 distinct specialist classes. Modern scholarship by López Austin and Martínez González reveals this was a technical specialization of the spirit, not mere superstition. Mesoamerican cosmology posited that every human possessed two fundamental components: the tonal (vital energy received at birth, linked to destiny) and the nahual (hidden double connected to an animal or natural phenomenon). While ordinary people experienced this connection passively, specialists could actively harness it. Transformation involved 'desdoblamiento'—separating consciousness rather than physical metamorphosis. After Spanish conquest, this capacity for transformation became the most feared weapon of indigenous resistance, used for spying, finding water, and combating other nahuales. Colonial records describe rebels transforming into beasts to attack camps at night, causing chaos before disappearing at dawn. The Inquisition recognized that as long as nahuales lived, conquest could never be complete, because they represented an unphysical power structure the Spanish could neither control nor destroy. Nahualism became the refuge of indigenous identity throughout colonial centuries.

The Nagual is a creature from Mesoamerican mythology that appeared in Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras. Witnesses describe it as a hybrid between a human and a canine. Some skeptics suggest it might be an unknown animal, while others believe it originates from malevolent forces. The legend states that a shaman or witch with advanced knowledge of witchcraft can transform into this form. The creature has human-like features but also animal characteristics, such as very long legs.

A nagual is defined as a healer or witch in the Nahuatl language spoken in southern Mexico. Nagualism begins with two certainties: that humans are extraordinary beings living in an extraordinary world, and that neither humans nor the world should be accepted as they appear. From these premises emerges the conclusion that nagualism involves removing the mask that makes us see ourselves and our world as predictable and repetitive, and putting on a second mask that helps us see ourselves and our environment as they truly are. A brujo or hechicero is not necessarily a nagual, but anyone can become one if they direct and are responsible for a group of people committed to discovering the second mask.

In Veracruz, Mexico, particularly in Santiago Tuxtla and Catemaco, local communities practice nagualism, a form of black magic where practitioners allegedly transform into animals through rituals involving Lucifer and Santa Muerte; these traditions, once widespread among indigenous peoples to protect their lands, have nearly disappeared with only a few practitioners remaining, though international visitors continue to seek knowledge of these practices.

The nagual (spirit double) is a fundamental concept in Aztec and Mesoamerican cosmology where every human possesses an independent spiritual animal companion that exists separately from the physical body yet shares a sympathetic connection; this concept, documented in colonial sources like the Florentine Codex and Ruíz de Alarcón's treatise, represents a widespread Mesoamerican belief system that extends beyond the Aztecs to include the Maya and other indigenous cultures, and it operates within a framework of three core principles: the universe is alive, the universe is reciprocal (requiring exchange of life force), and reality operates on dualistic forces (masculine/feminine, light/darkness, day/night) that exist in constant flux and interaction.

Postcolonial ecocriticism examines how colonial powers fundamentally altered ecosystems and displaced indigenous communities, creating lasting environmental damage that disproportionately affects former colonies while wealthier nations continue to exploit resources; this framework emphasizes that climate change and environmental degradation cannot be understood without acknowledging colonial history, and literature serves as a vital tool for raising awareness about these interconnected issues of environmental justice and ecological balance.

Postcolonial ecocriticism examines how colonialism and environmental exploitation are intimately connected, arguing that colonial powers systematically extracted resources from colonized lands while simultaneously dehumanizing indigenous peoples as inferior to nature; this framework reveals how post-independence states continue colonial patterns of resource extraction and marginalization, as demonstrated through Mahasweta Devi's portrayal of tribal displacement in India and Ken Saro-Wiwa's depiction of oil exploitation in Nigeria, ultimately suggesting that true decolonization requires returning lands to indigenous communities.

Postcolonial ecocriticism examines how colonization and its aftershocks reshape not only people but also landscapes. In 'How Beautiful We Were' by Akwaeke Emezi, the novel demonstrates how environmental degradation mirrors the suffering of people. The novel shows how destruction of environment is directly tied to colonial history where resources were extracted for profitable purposes, silencing local voices. The river poisoned becomes a symbol of the broken covenant between nature and the community. The novel raises questions of who has the right to speak for the land, with mothers taking leadership and refusing silence to demand justice. This intersection of gender and environment in postcolonial struggle makes the novel deeply powerful. The concept of speaking for the land involves not just environmental protection but also restoring dignity, reclaiming history, and ensuring survival. Literature becomes a form of activism that gives voice to the silenced, challenges exploitation, and reimagines more sustainable relationships with the earth. Postcolonial nations cannot heal unless their lands are healed.

This extensive section traces the development of postcolonial theory through key thinkers and examines its application to contemporary issues. Joseph Conrad's 'Heart of Darkness' reveals how colonialism is justified through ideological narratives despite atrocities. Franz Fanon established the relationship between race and economics in colonialism. Edward Said's 'Orientalism' (1978) argued the West constructed the 'orient' as something needing study, display, and reconstruction. Homi Bhabha's 'mimicry' describes how colonized peoples imitate colonizers, creating hybrid identities. Gayatri Spivak's 'Can the Subaltern Speak?' argues that those who are poor, black, and female face three forms of oppression, and their voices are appropriated by male leaders. Postcolonial studies as an academic discipline was formally born with 'The Empire Strikes Back' (1989), encompassing race, gender, and class in dialogue with history, political science, sociology, and anthropology. Postcolonial ecocriticism examines the interplay between environmental categories (water, land, energy, habitat, migration) and political/cultural categories (state, society, conflict, literature), arguing that colonialism cannot be understood without examining the environment it shaped. Decolonizing the university involves recognizing that knowledge is inevitably marked by power relations in a society shaped by colonial history.

This section covers postcolonial and environmental criticism. Edward Said's Orientalism established postcolonial theory, introducing contrapuntal reading to uncover imperialist assumptions. Homi Bhabha developed decolonizing the mind and third space concepts, emphasizing hybridity. Ecocriticism examines literature's relationship with the environment, with Albert Grossman introducing ecological imperialism. Mary Talbot's Gyn ecology connects feminist and environmental perspectives. Together, these approaches analyze how power operates through colonial and environmental frameworks.

The presence of animals is a characteristic often associated with this genre, and since antiquity there has been this tendency. In Aesop's fables, there is approximately 75% animalistic presence; in Phaedrus, another important ancient fabulist, there is 65%; and in Babrius, 80%. However, fables also contain diverse thematic contents including jokes, riddles, natural history stories, myths, and proverbs, which complicates genre definition. The allegorical element is probably one of the defining characteristics of fabulae exoticae, allowing for multiple messages and contents within these narratives. According to Helioteon, the first definition of fable in the Progymnasmata, a fable is a false composition that symbolizes a truth. There is no fable without symbolism, understood as this allegorical game.

When rating literary works, different criteria and perspectives can lead to different assessments. The host rates 'The Time of the Hero' at 9 out of 10 and 'The Dirty Animals' at 8 out of 10. Another notable animal fable is NoViolet Bulawayo's 'We Need New Names,' shortlisted for the Booker Prize, set in a Zimbabwean dictatorship where the father is an old, senile horse about to be deposed. The novel features an original style with African words and expressions woven into the English text, exploring themes of power, fear of power, and the birth of something that leads toward freedom. Another example is Lajos Parti Nagy's 'My Hero,' which features anthropomorphic pigeons exploring themes of political conversion and propaganda. These examples demonstrate how animal characters can be used to explore political themes while maintaining artistic distance.

The Panchatantra, one of the oldest books from ancient India, contains stories featuring animals such as panthers, monkeys, chimpanzees, and snakes that transmit ancestral wisdom. These animal fables were adapted to the Latin American context, with stories featuring local animals like coyotes, foxes, and Andean creatures. This tradition of animal fables was also present in other cultures, including those of India and the East, demonstrating that oral stories containing ancestral wisdom are a universal heritage shared by all peoples of Europe, Africa, the East, and Latin America.

Argentine literature employs animal metaphors to represent the relationship between Europe and America, civilisation and barbarie. In works like Facundo, European animals such as lions, tigers, and crocodiles are contrasted with their American counterparts—pumas and jaguares—which are described as degraded versions. This metaphorical framework positions the American landscape and its inhabitants as inferior imitations of European models, reflecting broader colonial attitudes about cultural and racial hierarchy.

Animal fables can serve as allegories for human society. In 'Pădurea' by Marian Godină, animals rule a forest where a hawk plots to overthrow the bear ruler by installing a manipulatable sow as a puppet. This mirrors human political power struggles, with the hawk's betrayal of his own family for power reflecting real-world political dynamics.