Subcultures and Countercultures: How Culture Shapes Society

The Birmingham School of Cultural Studies, founded in late 1950s England by scholars including Stuart Hall, Edward Thompson, Richard Hoggart, and Raymond Williams, represents a revolutionary approach to cultural analysis that combines Marxist theory, French structuralism, and postmodern thought to examine how cultural hegemony is produced through the interplay of ideological, political, economic, and social factors, fundamentally challenging traditional elitist cultural analysis by valuing popular culture as a spontaneous expression of diverse social groups and emphasizing the active role of audiences in constructing meaning through collective elaborations.

The concept of subculture originated in early 20th century Chicago sociology, where researchers studied poor neighborhoods and concluded that deviant behavior stemmed from environmental factors like peer groups and residential areas, not innate temperament. They coined 'corner boys' and 'subculture' to describe these groups. After WWII, the concept expanded as the baby boom generation rejected traditional values and formed resistance groups. In the 1960s, Birmingham's CCCS established that subcultures were class-based phenomena among working-class men, expressing resistance to class structure through rebellion. However, CCCS faced criticism for overemphasizing class and resistance while ignoring women, people of color, and LGBTQ+ subcultures.

Cultural Studies examines cultural practices in relation to power dynamics, questioning how practices maintain or challenge social hierarchies. The Frankfurt School of Germany developed Critical Theory around the 1930s-1940s, advocating for applying Marxist ideology to everyday institutions. The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) was established in 1964 at the University of Birmingham by Richard Hoggart and Stuart Hall, with Hoggart as first director (1964-1968) followed by Hall. CCCS institutionalized Cultural Studies as an academic discipline. Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield developed Cultural Materialism in 'Political Shakespeare' (1985), arguing culture should be studied in relation to material conditions rather than as abstract ideas.

The Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS), founded in 1964 by Richard Hoggart at Birmingham University, pioneered cultural studies by studying ordinary culture rather than just high art. Hoggart's 'The Uses of Literacy' examined how post-WWII Americanization homogenized British working-class culture. Under Stuart Hall's leadership (1968), the CCCS expanded to include media studies, youth subcultures (mods, punks), and analyses of race, gender, and class. Key figures include Raymond Williams, who challenged orthodox Marxism with concepts like 'structure of feeling' and categorized cultures as residual, dominant, and emergent; and postcolonial critics Edward Said (Orientalism) and Homi Bhaba (hybridity, mimicry, ambivalence).

The host explains how cultural appropriation becomes normalized through mainstream fashion. When brands like Victoria Secret and Vogue feature cultural elements on white models, audiences begin to accept these elements as 'cool' and desirable. This normalization process makes it easier for future appropriation to occur without recognition of the source culture.

Cultural appropriation is always connected to political or differing positions within the world's hierarchy. Bell hooks writes about it as 'The commodification of Otherness has been so successful because it is offered as a new delight, more intense, more satisfying than normal ways of doing and feeling. Within commodity culture, ethnicity becomes spice, seasoning that can liven up the dull dish that is mainstream white culture.' Being in a position of power gives one an opportunity to treat the culture of the Other as a product - an exotic experience that broadens their horizons, but without having to actually engage with it in any meaningful way. Cultural appropriation describes 'the use of elements of one culture by members of another culture, in ways that are perceived as unacknowledged or inappropriate.'

This segment examines how wellness culture involves cultural appropriation and commodification. The video explains that wellness culture takes practices that people of color have been doing for decades, whitewashes them, and sells them to others. Yoga is cited as a prime example - it has become less of an Indian practice and more mainstream, considered a non-Indian practice. The video distinguishes between participating in yoga and understanding its history. Sage burning is another example that has been 100% exoticized, where cultural practices are transformed into commodities requiring money to participate. The video argues that wellness culture profits off something that people of color have been doing for decades, taking it, saying it's theirs, and selling it to others.

Subcultures that were once marginalized can eventually gain mainstream acceptance over time. Artists who have long embraced alternative aesthetics may witness their style become trendy, which they typically view positively as long as they maintain their authentic self-expression.

Cultural appropriation occurs when representatives of the dominant culture take elements from the culture of minorities for which those minorities face discrimination. They inevitably distort the meaning of these elements and face no discrimination for doing so. Instead, these elements become fashionable and trendy in their hands. For example, white people with dreadlocks at festivals will remove them, pluck nose rings, and continue enjoying their white privileges, while people from the minority culture who own these elements face discrimination, cannot get jobs, cannot walk normally on streets, and may be beaten in schools.

Cultural imperialism posits that some cultures will dominate others, leading to destruction of subordinate cultures and replacement with dominant culture, exemplified by blue jeans, rock and roll, and t-shirts usurping local music and dress. Anthropologists critique this by noting it denies agency to non-Western peoples and ignores that the West also adopts non-Western forms like yoga, tai chi, and sushi. Cultural hybridization describes how people domesticate or indigenize ideas, practices, or objects, with change occurring locally rather than being imposed. However, borrowed images can be venues of control from outside influences. Problems with hybridization theory include that cultures have always been hybrid, effects are experienced differently by those in power versus without power, and elites and non-elites experience globalization differently. Cosmopolitanism refers to being at ease in multiple cultural settings, requiring pluralistic understanding of hybridization experiences, particularly for those marginalized by modernity.

Globalization impacts media through: Cultural imperialism - Western media dominating globally; Cultural hybridization - blending of cultures; Cultural homogenization - global culture replacing local cultures; Americanization - US media influence; Global village - increased global communication; Decline in local news, increasing global news; More consumer choice; Increased technology; Blurring boundaries between popular and high culture. Local cultures may be replaced by global culture, but some local cultures get spread globally (e.g., Riverdance). The tourist gaze involves local culture being sold globally.

Globalization sparks debate between homogenization (cultural imperialism) and heterogenization (local resistance). The homogenization view, via McLuhan's 'global village,' suggests Western cultural dominance threatens local traditions through uniform production/consumption patterns. Postmodern theorists Edward Said, Homi Bhabha, and Stuart Hall counter that globalization preserves local uniqueness through resistance and power dynamics. Robertson's concept of 'glocalization' synthesizes these views, describing hybrid phenomena like McDonald's Tandoor burger—an Indian adaptation of global chains—where global and local combine to create new cultural forms that embrace both universal and particular elements.

Cultural globalization manifests through two competing dynamics. Americanization or cultural imperialism suggests American cultural models (films, music, brands like McDonald's and Coca-Cola) are exported worldwide, creating cultural homogenization. However, cultural hybridization or glocalization offers an alternative perspective where global elements mix with local traditions. For instance, McDonald's in France serves French baguettes, and Coca-Cola adapts products to local tastes. This demonstrates that globalization involves complex interactions between global and local cultures rather than simple cultural imposition.

Glocalization refers to the relationship between local and global processes, where local cultures appropriate and transform global phenomena. For example, Halloween is celebrated differently in the United States, Mexico, and Argentina, acquiring distinctive local characteristics. Hybridization occurs when globalized practices and local practices combine to create new social practices that contain characteristics of both but also new elements. This is constantly present in modern life with smart devices and social media. A specific example is Argentine adolescents gathering to recite improvised poetry, combining elements of American rap with local traditions of free poetry, creating a new social practice of identification and leisure.

Social Control Theory (Hirschi) focuses on social bonds preventing crime: Attachment (emotional bonds with family/peers), Commitment (investment in conventional activities), Involvement (participation in mainstream activities), and Belief (acceptance of social norms). Labeling Theory (Becker) argues deviance is not about the act but about how others respond, with powerful groups deciding which behaviors count as deviant. Howard Becker's work shows how labeling creates secondary deviance. Differential Association Theory (Sutherland) argues deviant behavior is learned through intimate social interactions. Social Disorganization Theory (Chicago School) argues crime rates remain constant in areas with high unemployment, population fluctuation, and deteriorating conditions that prevent social organization. The Concentric Zone Model shows Zone 2 (Zone in Transition) has the highest crime due to poverty and weaker social bonds.

The counterculture movement of the 1960s represented a fundamental challenge to conservative American values. The movement embraced drug use, particularly LSD, as a tool for expanding consciousness and breaking free from conventional thinking. The Vietnam War played a crucial role in catalyzing this movement, as the United States' failure to defeat Vietnam challenged American assumptions about military superiority and national destiny. This failure resonated particularly with young people who had been drafted to fight in what many perceived as an unjust war. The movement's embrace of sexual freedom and alternative lifestyles represented a deliberate rejection of mainstream values. The women's liberation movement of the 1960s challenged traditional gender roles and the conservative family structure. Women who wanted to work outside the home faced discrimination and were often told they were 'crazy' for wanting careers. Betty Friedan's book 'The Feminine Mystique' (1963) became one of the best-selling books in American history, challenging the notion that women's fulfillment came solely from domestic roles. The concept of minority power in sociology refers to groups that are disadvantaged not by their numerical size but by their position in the social hierarchy. In the 1960s, women, Black people, and young people were all considered minorities of power despite potentially being numerically significant. Labeling theory, also known as the theory of social deviance, argues that deviance is not an inherent quality of an action but a social construction. The same behavior may be labeled as deviant for some individuals but not for others, depending on social context and power dynamics. Howard Becker's concept of the 'outsider' refers to individuals who are labeled as different from the mainstream social group. This labeling process creates a self-fulfilling prophecy, as individuals labeled as outsiders are more likely to engage in deviant behavior because they have been identified with that identity.

Howard S. Becker developed the labeling theory, which posits that deviance is not inherent in an act but is created through the social process of labeling. Individuals become deviant when society applies deviant labels to them, and this labeling process shapes their identity and future behavior. Albert K. Cohen's subculture theory proposes that criminal behavior emerges from subcultures that develop alternative value systems and norms, particularly among lower-class youth who develop their own definitions of success that may conflict with mainstream societal values. These theories emphasize the social construction of deviance and the role of social reaction in creating deviant identities.

This section presents interactionist theories of deviance. Becker's labeling theory argues that moral entrepreneurs (agencies of social control) assign labels that become master statuses, leading to self-fulfilling prophecies. Cicourel's typification theory shows how stereotypes influence policing decisions, with matching individuals more likely to be stopped and searched. Amplification of deviance occurs when social control interventions cause more deviant behavior, as seen with drug users escalating to harder substances. These perspectives reveal how social control mechanisms can paradoxically increase rather than reduce deviance.

This section explores why people conform and become deviant. Social psychological perspectives include: (1) Personality-based theories examining weak self-esteem, temper control issues, and rage; (2) Differential association theory - deviance stems from associating with deviant individuals; (3) Subcultural theory - deviant groups attract youth though it doesn't explain group formation; (4) Deviant attachment theory - individuals become deviant by attaching to deviant groups. Labeling theory explains how deviance is socially constructed: labeling occurs in response to deviant acts, creates expectations of further deviance, and leads to secondary deviance when individuals respond to these expectations. Social control theory asks why people conform, focusing on internal controls (conscience), attachment to groups (jobs, families), and age factors (most deviance among late teens/20s when people have little to lose).