The Sublime: Edmund Burke's Philosophy of Awe and Insignificance

Empiricism, founded by John Locke and developed by David Hume, holds that all knowledge comes from sensory experience. Experience is our capacity to perceive things through our senses. The fundamental thesis is that no ideas are innate - the human mind at birth is like a blank page (tabula rasa). Hume argues that everything in our mind is either an impression (vivid representations of current perception) or an idea (copies of impressions stored in memory). Impressions are more vivid and detailed than ideas. This framework establishes that knowledge begins with sensory experience and that the mind is initially empty, requiring experience to acquire all knowledge.

John Locke establishes empiricism as the philosophical foundation that all true knowledge originates from sensory experience. He introduces the mind as a blank slate (tabula rasa) that receives impressions from external objects through our senses. Locke distinguishes between ideas that come first and other things that participate in them through perception. The mind's function is to receive sensory experiences and distinguish between different qualities of objects. Locke argues that whatever we have experienced forms the basis of our understanding, and any knowledge that cannot be derived from experience is not genuine knowledge. This framework rejects innate ideas and positions experience as the sole source of genuine knowledge, forming the core of Locke's epistemological approach.

Empiricism derives from the Greek 'empeiria' meaning experience, representing a philosophical approach claiming knowledge relies solely on experience. In epistemology, this means all ideas, information, and understanding originate from observing reality. While ancient philosophers like Aristotle and Epicurus contained empiricist elements, it was 17th-century British thinkers including Newton, Bacon, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume who established empiricism as dominant. The core principle holds that scientific methodology should model philosophical inquiry, requiring observation and experience as foundations. This contrasts with rationalist traditions asserting innate knowledge, establishing empiricism as a systematic alternative for acquiring reliable knowledge about the world.

Empiricism is a philosophical current asserting that knowledge originates from experience and direct observation of phenomena, acquired through sensation or reflection. Unlike Rationalism, it rejects reason as a valid path to understanding. Originating in Britain during the 17th-18th centuries with roots in skepticism, empiricism gained prominence after the scientific revolution. John Locke (1632-1704) argued all knowledge comes from sensation and reflection, distinguishing real qualities (size, shape) from perceived qualities (color, taste), and rejecting innate ideas. The inductive method involves three stages: observation, hypothesis formation, and deduction of consequences. Most empiricists reject innate ideas, believing the mind is initially blank and receives ideas solely through experience.

Empiricism emphasizes experience as the primary source of knowledge, derived from the Greek word 'empiria.' There are two types: methodological empiricism (how we should investigate the world, associated with Francis Bacon) and genetic empiricism (where knowledge comes from, exemplified by John Locke). Locke's central thesis is that humans are born as 'tabula rasa'—a blank slate—completely devoid of knowledge, beliefs, or ideas. We arrive in the world empty, and all knowledge accumulates through sensory experiences. Locke systematically critiques nativism, arguing that if ideas were truly innate, we should have no difficulty accepting them consciously, yet we engage in debates about God's nature and moral principles. He distinguishes between simple and complex ideas, primary and secondary qualities, and three types of knowledge: intuitive, demonstrative, and sensory. This comprehensive framework established empiricism as a dominant philosophical approach that fundamentally shaped modern thought.

Three philosophers provide distinct characterizations of beauty: (1) Aristotle: something is beautiful if it is well-made and gives pleasure, though beautiful things may fail to please due to defects in ourselves or our culture; (2) Alberti: beauty is the reasoned harmony of all parts within whatever subject it appears such that nothing could be added, diminished, or altered without worsening it; (3) Aquinas: beauty demonstrates unity and harmony while also manifesting clarity—the quality of self-evidently embodying the essence of its kind. Beauty is not merely subjective but has qualities inherent in objects themselves.

Beauty is not merely subjective taste but has objective structure and real significance for humans. Aquinas identified three characteristics: unity, harmony, and clarity. Augustine argued beauty exists independently of our feelings. Jakštas defined beauty as unified variety arising from non-accidental harmony. This classical view reverses modern assumptions: we do not assign value to things, but value is revealed through them. Beauty emerges from the tension between unity and diversity when diverse elements create a higher unified whole.

Plato viewed beauty as an objective property connected to wisdom (Sophia)—the highest form of knowledge. When encountering beautiful objects or persons, one feels perplexed and compelled to seek deeper understanding, making beauty a catalyst for intellectual reflection. Aristotle defined beauty as symmetry and proportion—the mathematical relationships between parts of a whole. Both philosophers agreed that beauty exists objectively in the world, can be perceived by everyone, but requires mental engagement to fully comprehend, creating a democratic-accessible yet intellectually demanding concept.

The classical concept of beauty originated in ancient Greece and was characterized by perfectly formed, perfectly proportioned, noble, and serene works. Examples include the Apollo Belvedere (a marble statue of Apollo showing athletic grace) and the Aphrodite of Milo (Venus de Milo, representing the goddess of love and beauty). This concept of beauty was inherited by the Renaissance and represented an ideal type of humanity.

Renaissance art developed two major conceptions of beauty. The classical view, influenced by Vitruvius, saw beauty as ideal human proportions—exemplified by Leonardo's Vitruvian Man showing how human proportions fit within ideal geometric forms. The Neoplatonic view, influenced by Plato, saw beauty as emanation from the divine, associated with 'grazia' (grace). This led to the distinction between sacred and profane beauty, as seen in Botticelli's works where nude Venus represented truth while clothed figures represented profane love. The classical idea that beauty and virtue were connected (from Socrates' 'a sound mind in a sound body') influenced portraiture practices, leading to idealized representations that concealed physical defects.

The Enlightenment in 18th-century France formed the basis of all European and Western thought up to the mid-20th century student revolutions. This period fundamentally changed the world's perception. In the 18th century, England and France represented absolute opposites: England was a parliamentary democracy with limited monarchical power and religious tolerance (except Catholicism), while France was an absolute monarchy where books were burned and religious authorities could execute people for heresy. The desire of French intellectuals to follow England's political model led to severe consequences, beginning with the Jacobin dictatorship and continuing until after World War II.

Wealthy nations bear historical responsibility for underdevelopment in poorer regions. The Enlightenment era coincided with European conquest and atrocities worldwide. The United States explicitly planned to maintain dominance over Latin America, treating it as 'our little region' to be controlled rather than developed. This historical context creates obligations for wealthy nations to support developing countries' needs.

The Enlightenment (Século das Luzes) was a period when philosophy became the primary form of intellectual entertainment, with philosophers gathering in salons hosted by influential women like Madame d'Épagny. Claude-Adrien Helvétius (1715-1771) was a French philosopher from a distinguished medical family who received excellent education at a Jesuit college. He published only one book during his lifetime, 'De l'Esprit' (1758), which was condemned by the Catholic Church and French Parliament, forcing him to retract his ideas. The remainder of his work was published posthumously. He was influenced by John Locke and is classified as an empiricist and sensualist philosopher who expanded empiricism to include moral and political questions.

The 18th century marked a decisive turning point from medieval religious and monarchical authority. After the scientific revolution, thinkers like Newton and Descartes developed confidence in human reason's ability to discover natural laws. French philosophers like Voltaire and Rousseau championed reason and social reform. However, Kant's unique position differed from other Enlightenment thinkers: he warned against unlimited rationalism while establishing reason's authority in moral domains. He wrote 'What is Enlightenment?' in 1784 as a response to a question in the Berlin Monthly, aiming to protect intellectual freedom during a period of tightening censorship under Frederick the Great.

Messiah was born during the Dark Shadows of the Enlightenment period in Britain. During this time, Britain was at war, and the infant mortality rate in London was 75%. The video explains that Messiah offered a sense of hope and light when such evidence suggested otherwise. Jennens himself was worried that Handel had done a 'cheap job' with his words, though he later softened in his criticism.