Cottonwood & Willow Planting: Stinger Bar and Wattle Restoration

Flooding conditions affect riparian species selection. Long duration inundation (greater than 4-6 weeks) limits species to hydric species that can tolerate extended flooding. Low to moderate inundation allows a broader suite of hydric species and some riparian transitional species. Dry forest assemblages are not tolerant of any inundation outside of a day or two. Herbivory management is critical for riparian restoration success. Temporary fencing (8-foot elk fences) can protect plants above browse lines or until they can resprout from established roots. Beaver exclusion fencing (field fence with skirt around base) prevents animals from crawling under fencing. Livestock fencing is permanent.

Riparian restoration employs several strategies: (1) Exclusion fencing and grazing management to prevent cattle damage while allowing wildlife passage; (2) Active restoration involving removal of non-native/invasive vegetation, restoring native plants, removing old logging roads, removing dams, cleaning trash, placing woody debris for habitat, and installing wildlife structures; (3) Passive restoration stopping degrading activities like excluding cattle, eliminating waste discharge, implementing limited operating periods, allowing beavers to return, letting streams meander naturally, and eliminating herbicides; (4) Hydrologic restoration reconnecting streams with floodplains through replanting, slope recontouring, adding woody debris, controlling above-stream flows, and removing invasive species like salt cedar.

Beaver trapping is sometimes used as a management tool to protect riparian areas (areas near water) from beaver damage. When beavers build dams and create ponds, they can damage ecosystems and prevent the establishment of native vegetation like willows. Landowners may trap beavers to allow willows to reestablish along waterways, which is important for wildlife habitat and water quality.

Effective riparian vegetation monitoring requires a systematic approach using multiple protocols (density plots, cross-sections, green line surveys, and photo points) collected at specific project phases (baseline, years 1-3, 5-10, and 15) to track plant community composition, survival rates, competition, and herbivory pressure, enabling adaptive management decisions and demonstrating restoration effectiveness over time.

Invasive species like giant hogweed, Himalayan balsam, and Japanese knotweed can colonize riparian areas, arriving via flood seeds from upstream. Management varies: Himalayan balsam can be pulled easily; giant hogweed requires caution due to genetic risks; Japanese knotweed needs extreme care with fragments and typically requires chemical intervention. Specialist forestry grants through ILMP are available for woodland only, potentially applicable to riparian planting. Biodiversity planning grants (£100,000 max) may incorporate riverbank restoration. Beavers can influence techniques: they fell trees (coppicing them for bushy growth) and may build lodges requiring riparian corridor space. In some cases, beavers may facilitate channel movement creating beneficial braided channels.

Successful sediment modeling requires systematic methodology: first build and calibrate a strong hydraulic model before adding sediment transport. Multi-dimensional calibration (space and time) ensures robustness, validated against theoretical curves and field measurements. Large-scale river modeling requires careful mesh design constrained by navigation structures, using break lines to capture hydraulic features precisely. Separate calibrations for high and low flow conditions establish reliable baseline behavior. Acceptable results demonstrate scour at structure edges and deposition behind structures at appropriate magnitudes. Model development must align with specific management questions, focusing calibration efforts on areas critical to decision-making.

Hydrological modeling uses HEC-HMS software with Clark methodology for rural basins, requiring parameters like area, precipitation, time of concentration, storage coefficient, and curve number (75 used). The model associates each area with ponds, sedimentation ponds, and dynamic ponds, outputting peak discharge rates and water volumes for various return periods (100 years, 2.33 years). Sediment production analysis involves three components: annual average sediment production using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) by Wischmeier and Foster (1998), sediment production during maximum floods using modified USLE, and physical sedimentation processes. Parameters include K (erosion factor), LS (topographic factor), C (cover factor), and P (support practice factor). The model outputs total annual sediment volume in weights and cubic meters. Sedimentation ponds are designed with sediment height calculated from sediment volumes from all influence areas, 2:1 slope for maintenance and geomembrane installation, 0.3-meter decantation height for fine material separation, 0.3-meter resuspension height, maximum water level of 3.4 meters with overflow capability, and freeboard for safety. Hydraulic structures are dimensioned using Manning equation for channels and truncated pyramid formulas for ponds. Spillways (Cipolletti-type) interconnect ponds, requiring outflow rates greater than inflow rates. Intermediate ponds handle maximum flood events because total storm volumes are too large for direct main pond storage.

This video introduces a comprehensive diploma program in hydrological and hydraulic modeling, covering the fundamental concepts of hydrographic basins, including their classification by area (microbasins <5,000 ha, subbasins 5,000-50,000 ha, main basins >50,000 ha), the hydrological cycle with precipitation as input and discharge, evapotranspiration, surface runoff, and infiltration as outputs, and the practical application of free software tools like QGIS for basin delineation, HEC-HMS for hydrological modeling, and HEC-RAS/IBER for hydraulic analysis, emphasizing the importance of digital elevation models, geospatial data processing, and model calibration for accurate flood prediction and water resource management.

Modern hydraulic engineering relies on software like HEC-RAS for channel design and sediment management. The research employs non-experimental, descriptive methodology to analyze hydraulic phenomena. Case studies demonstrate software effectiveness: in the Cosecha River, sedimentation caused bridge submersion, resolved through channel widening and dredging. In Tamara and Abala, software validated against 11-year field data, showing 32% sediment reduction through bed material modification. These cases illustrate how software visualization and calculation capabilities enable engineers to identify problems, test solutions, and achieve reliable hydraulic designs.

Sediment management is essential for river restoration: gravel addition can restore sediment transport capacity, removing constraints allows natural sediment movement, and sediment sources must be identified and protected. Countries like Germany, France, and Italy have implemented gravel addition programs to restore sediment dynamics. Human activities have reduced river sediment transport: vegetation growth traps sediment, water quality changes affect sediment transport, and river channels have become narrower. Historical photos show how channels have narrowed over time, affecting the river's ability to transport sediment to the sea. Fine sediments can form plugs that block channels and change the river's ability to transport coarser sediments. The challenge is that rivers can no longer transport as much sediment to the sea as they did historically, requiring careful management of sediment sources and sinks.

Stream restoration and modification projects often require permits from multiple agencies: Ohio state government, federal government through the Army Corps of Engineers, and local municipalities. Understanding and navigating these regulatory requirements is an important part of stream work. Local watershed organizations and Soil and Water Conservation Districts can help landowners understand whether permits are needed and assist with the application process. Working with these resources helps ensure projects comply with environmental regulations while achieving restoration goals.

Pennsylvania stream restoration permitting falls under Chapter 105 of the Pennsylvania Code (Dam Safety and Encroachment Act). The permitting framework includes: General Permit GP3 for small-scale bank stabilization up to 500 feet of stream bank with no wetland impacts; Waiver 16 for restoration activities requiring environmental assessment but not full alternative analysis; and full joint permits for larger projects. Federal permitting typically involves Section 404 permits and 401 Water Quality Certification, with options including PA SPG P4 for less than one acre of impact or Nationwide Permit 27 for restoration activities.

A watershed is an area of land that drains all streams and rainfall to a common outlet, including surface water and groundwater. Streams flow downhill due to gravity, with erosion fastest where hills are highest and slopes steepest. Younger streams meander more than older streams, which become straighter over time through oxbow lake formation. Oxbow lakes are U-shaped lakes created when streams cut off meanders through erosion on outer banks and deposition on inner banks. Storm water from rain and snow melt can either filter through green landscapes or funnel through impervious surfaces to waterways. Floodplains are low-lying areas adjacent to streams that absorb excess water and release it slowly, mitigating flood and drought effects. Disconnecting floodplains causes unstable waterways, habitat loss, degraded water quality, and stream bank erosion. Stream bank erosion occurs when water forces exceed resisting forces of banks and vegetation, caused by channel confinement, vegetation removal, and uncontrolled storm water runoff. Impacts include increased sediment and turbidity, damage to infrastructure, and riparian zone degradation. Stream restoration aims to redirect stream energy from banks to the channel center to improve environmental health. The design process involves environmental surveys, topography surveys, and creating designs with bank stabilization (regrading, fabrics, plantings, toe reinforcements) and in-stream structures (rock cross vane, riffles, log veins, deflectors). Pennsylvania Chapter 105 requires permits for stream work, reviewed by county conservation districts. GP1 permits cover fish habitat structures with Fish and Boat Commission review, requiring clean rock material, structures not exceeding 3 feet above stream bed, and prohibiting tires. GP3 permits cover bank rehabilitation and gravel bar removal (limited to 500 linear feet, 6-inch gravel bar height, 6-foot retaining wall height) but exclude floodplain restoration, vegetated gravel bar removal, wetland impacts, and channel modifications. Channel realignment requires joint permits through DEP and Army Corps of Engineers. GP8 permits cover temporary road crossings (SPAM bridges, fords, culverts) valid for one year. Four case studies demonstrate implementation: Sawmill Run (Bethel Park, 220-acre drainage, 3 weeks, $95,000), Bird Park (Mount Lebanon, 75-acre urbanized stream, 7 weeks, $136,000), Faucet Fields (Shaler Township, 3,500-acre stream, 6-7 weeks, $125,000), and Valley Compressor Station (Armstrong County, 3,600-acre drainage, 9 weeks, $280,000). Construction costs range from $200-300 per linear foot depending on project complexity.

Stream restoration projects undergo multiple regulatory reviews: Interagency Review Team (Corps of Engineers, MDE, DNR, EPA, USFWS, Native American tribes), Corps of Engineers and MDE wetland/waterways permits, Howard County grading permits and erosion control approvals, FEMA floodplain coordination, and NPDES permits during construction. Monitoring continues for 10 years post-construction with credit releases contingent on meeting functional uplift criteria. Long-term stewardship transfers to Columbia Association funded by credit sales percentages.

The permitting process includes entry-level permits for boundary determination and Notices of Intent for activities altering resource areas, requiring compliance with performance standards. Additional permits may be needed from Army Corps of Engineers, MassDEP, Natural Heritage Program, National Park Service, or for water quality certificates. Stream restoration recognizes that healthy streams are naturally meandering with large woody debris providing habitat and temperature regulation. Emergency permits bypass standard review for hazardous conditions. Beaver activity is encouraged as natural wetland creators. Restoration projects follow phases: planning/assessment, engineering/design, permitting, and construction, requiring the same regulatory review as new developments.